Bio-diversity Fact Sheet

As far as we know, our planet is unique in the Universe in supporting life. Not just a few, but millions of species, a huge diversity of life forms. This biodiversity is now under threat due to the dominance of the human species, and its ability to change the natural environment. A mass extinction of other species is currently underway, and as we become aware of our ability to save or destroy other species, and gain increasing control over the world environment, we will take on the role of guardian of the species and habitats that survive.

The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined biodiversity as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics. As one approaches polar regions one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species. Flora and fauna vary depending on climate, altitude, soils and the presence of other species.

One definition of a biodiversity hotspot is a region with many endemic species. These biodiversity hotspots were first identified by Dr. Norman Myers in two articles in the scientific journal The Environmentalist (1988 and 1990). Hotspots unfortunately tend to occur in areas of significant human impact, leading to threats to their many endemic species. As a result of the pressures of the growing human population, human activity in many of these areas is increasing dramatically. Most of these hotspots are located in the tropics and most of them are forests.

Some examples are the following:

• Brazil's Atlantic Forest contains roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, just under half of which are thought to occur nowhere else in the world.

Biodiversity found on Earth today is the result of 4 billion years of evolution.

The original origin of life is not well known to science, though limited evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few 100 million years after the formation of the Earth. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of bacteria and similar single-celled organisms.

The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, global diversity showed little overall trend, but was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events.

The apparent biodiversity shown in the fossil record suggests that the last few million years include the period of greatest biodiversity in the Earth's history. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is considerable uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections. Some (e.g. Alroy et al. 2001) argue that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity is not much different than biodiversity 300 million years ago. Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million species, with a best estimate of somewhere near 10 million.

Most biologists agree however that the period since the emergence of humans is part of a new mass extinction, the Holocene extinction event, caused primarily by the impact humans are having on the environment. At present, the number of species estimated to have gone extinct as a result of human action is still far smaller than are observed during the major mass extinctions of the geological past. However, it has been argued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to create a major mass extinction in less than 100 years. Others dispute this and suggest that the present rate of extinctions could be sustained for many thousands of years before the loss of biodiversity matches the more than 20% losses seen in past global extinction events.

New species are regularly discovered (on average about three new species of birds each year) and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (an estimate states that about 40% of freshwater fish from South America are not yet classified). Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in tropical forests.

Benefits of biodiversity

Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture, and, in turn, human communities have played a major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the genetic, species, and ecological levels.

There are three main reasons commonly cited in the literature for the benefits of biodiversity.

Ecological role of biodiversity

All species provide some kind of function to an ecosystem. They can capture and store energy, produce organic material, decompose organic material, help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, control erosion or pests, fix atmospheric gases, or help regulate climate.

Ecosystems also provide various supports of production (soil fertility, pollinators of plants, predators, decomposition of wastes...) and services such as purification of the air and water, stabilisation and moderation of the climate, decrease of flooding, drought, and other environmental disasters.

These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival.

Research suggests that a more diverse ecosystem is better able to withstand environmental stress and consequently is more productive. The loss of a species is thus likely to decrease the ability of the system to maintain itself or to recover from damage or disturbance. Just like a species with high genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a greater chance of adapting to environmental change. In other words, the more species comprising an ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is likely to be. The mechanisms underlying these effects are complex and hotly contested. In recent years, however, it has become clear that there are real ecological effects of biodiversity.

Economic role of biodiversity

For all humans, biodiversity is first a resource for daily life. One important part of biodiversity is 'crop diversity', which is also called agrobiodiversity.

Most people see biodiversity as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. This concept of biological resources management probably explains most fears of resources disappearance related to the erosion of the biodiversity. However, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing with rules of division and appropriation of natural resources.

Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are:

• food : crops, livestock, forestry, and fish; (see also local food)
• medication. Wild plant species have been used for medicinal purposes since before the beginning of recorded history. For example, quinine comes from the cinchona tree (used to treat malaria), digitalis from the foxglove plant (chronic heart trouble), and morphine from the poppy plant (pain relief). According to the National Cancer Institute, over 70 % of the promising anti-cancer drugs come from plants in the tropical rainforests. Animals may also play a role, in particular in research. It is estimated that of the 250,000 known plant species, only 5,000 have been researched for possible medical applications. industry : for example, fibres for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Biodiversity may be a source of energy (such as biomass). Other industrial products are oils, lubricants, perfumes, fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons, and cork, which can all be derived from various plant species. Supplies from animal origin include wool, silk, fur, leather, lubricants, and waxes. Animals may also be used as a mode of transport.
• tourism and recreation : biodiversity is a source of economical wealth for many areas, such as many parks and forests, where wild nature and animals are a source of beauty and joy for many people. Ecotourism, in particular, is a growing outdoor recreational activity.

Ecologists and environmentalists were the first to insist on the economic aspect of biological diversity protection. Thus, E. O. Wilson wrote in 1992 that : The biodiversity is the one of the bigger wealths of the planet, and nevertheless the lessrecognized as such.

Estimation of the value of biodiversity is a necessary precondition to any discussion on the distribution of biodiversity richnesses. This value can be divided into use value (direct such as tourism or indirect such as pollination) and non-use or intrinsic value.

If biological resources represent an ecological interest for the community, their economic value is also increasing. New products are developed because of biotechnologies, and new markets created. For society, biodiversity also is a field of activity and profit. It requires a proper management setup to determine how these resources are to be used.

The majority of species have yet to be evaluated for their current or future economic importance.

Ethical role of biodiversity

Finally, biodiversity has an ethical role if humans consider that other species have an intrinsic right to exist. Ecophilosophies such as deep ecology assert that a recognition of this intrinsic right makes it morally wrong to voluntarily cause extinction. The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state of our relationships with other living species. Biodiversity is also part of many cultures' spiritual heritage (see indigenous people and cultural diversity).

Scientific role of biodiversity

This is a fourth benefit separate from the three main ones. Biodiversity is important because each species can give scientists some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve on Earth. In addition, biodiversity helps scientists understand how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems.

See also Environmental economics

Threats to biodiversity

During the last century, erosion of biodiversity has been increasingly observed. Estimates of extinction rates are controversial, ranging from very low to upwards of 200 species a day, but all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates.

Some studies show that about one of eight known plant species is threatened with extinction. Some estimates put the loss at thousands of species per year, though these are based on Species-area theory and are controversial. This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because only a small number of species come into being each year. All agree that the losses are due to human activities, in particular destruction of plant and animal habitats.

An increasing number of studies indicate that elevated rates of extinction are being driven by human consumption of organic resources. While most of the species that are becoming extinct are not food species, their biomass is converted into human food when their habitat is transformed into pasture, cropland, and orchards. It is estimated that more than 40% of the Earth's biomass is tied up in only the few species that represent humans, our livestock and crops. Because an ecosystem decreases in stability as its species are made extinct, these studies warn that the global ecosystem is destined for collapse if it is further reduced in complexity.

Some justify this situation not so much by a species overuse or ecosystem degradation as by their conversion in very standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation). Before 1992, others pointed out that no property rights or no access regulation of resources necessarily lead to their decrease (degrading costs having to be supported by the community).

Dissenters (notably economist Bjørn Lomborg) argue that there is not enough data to support the view of mass extinction, and say abusive extrapolations are being made on the global destruction of rainforests, coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and other rich habitats.

There is also a growing awareness that the movement and the introduction of exotic species around the world by humans is a potent threat to biodiversity.

When exotic species are introduced to ecosystems by humans and establish self-sustaining populations, the endemic species in that ecosystem, that have not evolved to cope with the exotic species in question, cannot automatically be expected to survive. Indeed, in many situations some will not. The exotic organisms in questions may be predators and/or have features due to their evolutionary background and environment that makes them very competitive, and similarly makes endemic species very defenceless and/or uncompetitive against these exotic species.

The rich diversity of unique species across many parts of the world that humans treasure exist only because they a separated by barriers - particularly seas and oceans - from other species of other land masses, particularly the highly fecund, ultra-competitive, generalist "super-species". These are barriers that could never be crossed by natural processes, except for many millions of years in the future through continental drift. However human beings have invented ships and aeroplanes. Now human beings have the power to bring into contact species that would never have encountered each other in their evolutionary history, and to do it with ease in weeks, days or even just hours.

As a consequence of the above, if human beings continue to unleash species of the world against each other by introductions - species that otherwise would never have encountered each other in their evolutionary history - some fear that it is possible that many of the worlds ecosystems will end up dominated by a very few, cosmopolitan "super-species".

Biodiversity management: conservation, preservation and protection

The conservation of biological diversity has become a global concern. Although not everybody agrees on extent and significance of current extinction, most consider biodiversity essential. There are basically two main types of conservation options, in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation. In-situ is usually seen as the ultimate conservation strategy. However, its implementation is sometimes unfeasible. For example, destruction of rare or endangered species' habitats sometimes requires ex-situ conservation efforts. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation can provide a backup solution to in-situ conservation projects. Some believe both types of conservation are required to ensure proper preservation. An example of an in-situ conservation effort is the setting-up of protection areas. An example of an ex-situ conservation effort, by contrast, would be planting germplasts in seedbanks. Such efforts allow the preservation of large populations of plants with minimal genetic erosion.

The threat to biological diversity was among the hot topics discussed at the UN World Summit for Sustainable Development, in hope of seeing the foundation of a Global Conservation Trust to help maintain plant collections.

See also: Conservation ethic, Earth Day, Global 200, IUCN, Seedbank, World Ocean Day.

Juridical status of biological diversity

Biodiversity must be evaluated and its evolution analysed (through observations, inventories, conservation...) then it must be taken into account in political decisions. It is beginning to receive a juridical setting.

• "Law and ecosystems" relationship is very ancient and has consequences for biodiversity. It is related to property rights, private and public. It can define protection for threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for example, fishing rights, hunting rights).
• "Laws and species" is a more recent issue. It defines species that must be protected because threatened by extinction. Some people question application of these laws. The U.S. Endangered Species Act is an example of an attempt to address the "law and species" issue.
• "Laws and genes" is only about a century old. While the genetic approach is not new (domestication, plant traditional selection methods), progress made in the genetic field in the past 20 years lead to the obligation to tighten laws. With the new technologies of genetic and genetic engineering, people are going through gene patenting, processes patenting, and a totally new concept of genetic resource. A very hot debate today seeks to define whether the resource is the gene, the organism, the DNA or the processes.

The 1972 UNESCO convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the common heritage of mankind. These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of genetic resources, located outside the source-countries.

New global agreements (e.g.Convention on Biological Diversity), now give sovereign national rights over biological resources (not property). The idea of static conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced by the idea of dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and innovation.

The new agreements commit countries to conserve biodiversity, develop resources for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. Under these new rules, it is expected that bioprospecting or collection of natural products has to be allowed by the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the benefits.

Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity spirit implies a prior informed consent between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what, and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when those principles are not respected.

Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. At least one legal commentator has argued that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, arguing that the multiple layers of scientific uncertainty inherent in the concept of biodiversity will cause administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals. See Fred Bosselman, A Dozen Biodiversity Puzzles, 12 N.Y.U. Environmental Law Journal 364 (2004)

Criticisms of the biodiversity paradigm

The 'founder effect'

The field of biodiversity research has often been criticised for being overly defined by the personal interests of the founders (ie. terrestrial mammals) giving a narrow focus, rather than extending to other areas where it could be useful. This is termed the 'founder effect' by Norse and Irish, (1996). France and Rigg reviewed biodiversity research literature in 1998 and found that a there was a significant lack of papers studying marine ecosystems, leading them to dub marine biodiversity research the 'sleeping hydra'.

Size bias

Biodiversity researcher Sean Nee, writing in the 24 June 2004 edition of Nature, points out that the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity is microbial, and that contemporary biodiversity science is "firmly fixated on the visible world" (Nee uses "visible" as a synonym for macroscopic). For example, microbial life is very much more metabolically and environmentally diverse than multicellular life.

Quotes from Sean Nee

• "the contribution of visible life to biodiversity is very small indeed".
• "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. This should not be surprising — invisible life had at least three billion years to diversify and explore evolutionary space before the 'visibles' arrived".

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Further Links

International

Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea
Africam.com - web cams in Africa

African Conservation Foundation
African Wildlife Foundation
All Species Foundation - dedicated to the complete inventory of all species of life
Amazon Co-op - products harvested and produced by the indigenous communities in the Amazon
Amazon Watch
Amazonia
Amizade - promoting volunteerism in Brazil
The Andrew Lees Trust - helping develop educational programs in the south of Madagascar
Animal Info

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
The Ape Alliance - working for the conservation and welfare of apes
ARKive
Balikpapan Orangutan Society, USA (BOS-USA)
Biodiversity Hot spots
BioGems - from the Natural Resources Defence Council
BirdLife International
The Borneo Project
The Born Free Foundation
Browerweb - information on David Brower - the founder of FOE - and the Earth Island Institute
The Bushmeat Campaign
Bushmeat Project
The Bushmeat Research Programme

Business and Biodiversity

CEEI - Centre for Environmental Education and Information (USA)
Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Conservation International
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR)
Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF)

Convention on Biological Diversity
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species UK
Cyprus Conservation Foundation
Declining Amphibians Populations Task Force
The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
Earth Culture - North Carolina Rainforest Action Site
EarthWatch - connects volunteers to practical projects
EIA - Environmental Investigation Agency

Eco – The online green newspaper
Endangered Species
European Centre for Nature Conservation
European Environment Agency
FERN - the EU forest campaign
Forest Conservation Portal - rainforest, forest and biodiversity conservation news & information
Forest Stewardship Council UK The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is an international, non-governmental organisation dedicated to promoting responsible management of the world's forests. FSC operates a system of forest certification and product labelling that allows consumers to identify wood products from well-managed forests.

Forest Stewardship Council International
forests monitor - investigates the forest industry
Friends of the Nemaiah Valley - (Canada)
Fundació Natura - Spanish NGO devoted to the conservation of biological diversity
futureforests

G.A.I.A – The Green Advice and Information Agency (G.A.I.A)

Global Biodiversity Information Facility
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN)
Global Forest Watch
The Global Trees Campaign - conserving threatened trees and their habitats
Good Wood Guide
The Gorilla Foundation - promotes the protection, preservation and propagation of gorillas
Greenforce - environmental surveys in developing countries
The Haribon Foundation - sustainable development for the Philippines
Illegal-logging.info
Indian Tiger Welfare Society
International Forest-related Processes
International Fund for Animal Welfare
International Institute for Environment and Development
International Mire Conservation Group

International Otter Survival Fund
International Snow Leopard Trust - information and conservation of snow leopards
Iracambi - Brazilian Atlantic rainforest conservation
IUCN Redlist of threatened species
IUCN The World Conservation Union
The Jatun Sacha Foundation - conservation, research, education (Ecuador)
Landscape Forum Ireland
Leicester Primate Concern - links to African sanctuaries
Lifeforce - Satpura Tiger Reserve
Madagascar Wildlife Conservation
Marine Stewardship Council
Natural Environment Research Council
Natural Selection: subject gateway to the natural world
The Nature Conservancy - US based habitat conservation
One Planet, One Life & The Sixth Mass Extinction
Orangutan Health Project
Planet Ark - aims to show people and business how to reduce their impact on the environment (Australia)
Project Las Piedras - will investigate the ecological consequences of hunting on mammals along this river (Peru)
Québec Forest Industries Association

Rainforest Action Network - rainforest campaigns organisation

Rainforest Concern
Rainforest Foundation UK
Rainforest Information Centre
ReefBase - online information system on coral reefs
Sakhalin Environment Watch
SaveTheArctic.com
Save the lakes - Southern Cape South Africa
Sea Anglers' Conservation Network
Seal Conservation Society
The Secretariat of the Convention on Migratory Species - (also known as CMS or the Bonn Convention)
The Shark Trust
Sierra Club, BC - Sierra Club, British Columbia Rainforest Site
Species Dictionary
The Sumatran Orangutan Society
Traffic - wildlife trade monitoring network
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) - species & habitats conservation
United Nations Environment Programme
WARSI (Conservation Information Forum)
The Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS) – UK organization that campaigns for the protection of whales, dolphins
Whales Online
Wildfowl Wetlands Trust
wildlifeline
WildNet Africa – features Africa's wildlife
World Commission on Dams - reviewing the development effectiveness of large dams
World Land Trust - forest conservation
World Rainforest Movement

UK

adopt a dolphin
Association of National Park Authorities
The Barn Owl Centre
Barn Owl Trust
The Bat Conservation Trust - working to conserve bat and habitat conservation
BBCi Nature
Birdlinks - links to over 500 sites / pages of interest to birdwatchers in the UK

Botanical Society of the British Isles
BANC - British Association of Nature Conservationists
British Ecological Society

British Isles Nature Reserves
British Naturalists' Association
British Trees - British Trees Conservation Information
British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (BTCV)
Butterfly Conservation
The Conservation Foundation
Council for National Parks
CountryGoer- promoting access to and within Britain's countryside by public transport
The Countryside Agency
Countryside Council for Wales
The Countryside Trust - conserving the countryside by helping people raise funds and recruit volunteers
Dart Estuary Environmental Management
Defend the Dunes - campaign to prevent residential development on the sand dunes between Lytham St Annes and Blackpool
Derbyshire Foxes - fox rescue site

Devon Wildlife trust -- nature reserve list
Dolphin Care UK

Eco – The online green newspaper
English Nature - Government agency for conservation of wildlife and natural features
The Environment Agency
Environment Wales - supporting and encouraging voluntary action

Envision
Forestry Commission
Froglife - info. on native amphibians and reptiles of Britain and Ireland

G.A.I.A – The Green Advice and Information Agency (G.A.I.A)

Good Beach Guide - independent guide to the quality of Britain's bathing waters
The Herpetological Conservation Trust
Jane Goodall Institute UK
Joint Nature Conservation Committee
The Land is Ours
LIFE Peatlands Project - Restoring Active Blanket Peat Bog of European Importance in North Scotland
Limestone Pavement Action Group
London Biodiversity Partnership
London & West Middx. National Trust Volunteers
Mammal Society
Marine Conservation Society
Marinet - Campaigning to protect the marine environment
National Biodiversity Network
National Community Forest Partnership
National Council for the Conservation of Plants and Gardens (NCCPG)
National  Federation of Badger Groups
National Small Woods Association - promoting conservation and rehabilitation of small woodlands
The National Trust - a guardian for the nation in the acquisition & protection of threatened coastline, countryside & buildings
National Urban Forestry Unit
National Wildflower Centre
The Natural History Museum
Naturenet
North Sea Action Group
Open Spaces Society
Plantlife - wild plant conservation charity
Rare Breeds Survival Trust
reticule - find wildflowers online
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
RSA Trees Initiative
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
Scottish Natural Heritage
The Shared Earth Trust - promoting low-input methods of land management
The South Downs Campaign
Steep Holm Island - nature reserve you can visit
Sussex Downs Conservation Board (SDCB)
Talnotry Avian Care Trust (TACT) - voluntarily run Wildlife Centre in Crumlin, County Antrim, Northern Ireland
Tree Council
Trees for Life - dedicated to the restoration of the Caledonian Forest in the Highlands of Scotland
UK Biodiversity

UK Safari
UK Wildlife Helpline
Wild About Britain
Wild about woods - celebration of Britain's ancient woodland
The Wild Flower Society - for amateur botanists/wild flower lovers in the UK

Wildfile

Wildlife Online
The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
The Wildlife Trusts
Wolf Trust
Woodland Trust - dedicated to the protection of our native woodland heritage

Working for Wildlife